Exterior view of the Pantheon; sixteenth-century engraving by Etienne Duperac. 10.1). But rather than the smooth granite of the exterior shafts, these are fluted and made of colored marble: purple-veined ivory-colored pavonazetto from Turkey and salmon-honey-colored giallo antico from Tunisia in alternate exedras.27 Pilasters rather than columns are employed to face the edges of the structural piers, in the middle of which are aedicules that must originally have housed some of the statuary in the building. o. For this and other ancient sources see Licht 1968, pp. Something about this layering of the composition must have suggested authenticity to him, an authenticity that escaped others of the period. The interior elevation consists of three zones, or ranges. For further background, see Chapter Three in this volume. Interior seen along main axis. "use strict";(function(){var insertion=document.getElementById("citation-access-date");var date=new Date().toLocaleDateString(undefined,{month:"long",day:"numeric",year:"numeric"});insertion.parentElement.replaceChild(document.createTextNode(date),insertion)})(); FACT CHECK: We strive for accuracy and fairness. Their pattern has led to the inspired yet unprovable reconstruction of a civic honor in the shape of a crown of oak leaves (corona civica), combined perhaps with an eagle alluding to the apotheosis of mortals to the immortal realm.14, The roof over the portico runs back to interrupt a secondary pediment applied to the surface of the transitional block, creating a compositional oddity that inspired the invention of a new kind of church facade in the sixteenth century. (The Bern Digital Pantheon Project), VIII. The link between the porch of the Pantheon and the rotunda is formed by the so-called intermediate or transitional block. Today, the Pantheon is a major tourist destination for visitors from around the world, while continuing to function as a church. More recent scholarship suggests instead that the Agrippan fabric was in fact oriented toward the north, and that its plan likewise combined a round space with a portico. As Nesselrath points out, there is good evidence of earlier burials in the Pantheon, for which medieval and early Renaissance tomb slabs are still preserved, having been removed from the floor during restorations. This drastic revision resituated the building firmly in the period of the Roman Empire during a time of great architectural innovation in the use of the very sort of concrete technology that the Pantheon exemplified. Frank Lloyd Wright called his Guggenheim Museum “my Pantheon.” For Louis Kahn, the “Pantheon is really a world within a world.”, Such ideas represent a beginning, not an end, of broader studies of the fabric that arose sometime in the second century AD. 31–45; Alberto M. Racheli, Restauri a Roma 1870–1990. (History Unbound) The logic for this decision is based upon the columns at the front of the building, as well as the dome located behind the columns. (see Fig. 55–63. by emperor Marcus Agrippa, and according to Roman mythology the Pantheon stands on the spot where Romulus was carried away by an eagle after he died. As was common in Roman centralized buildings, the circular geometry of the plan is articulated by two main orthogonal axes and two diagonal axes so as to create eight sectors like slices of a pie (see Plate V). In both cases, the shafts are each of a single piece (save for a few repairs), that is to say, monoliths weighing 50 tons. 1.13; see Chapter Five by Gene Waddell). The only ancient assembly of bronze that does survive at the Pantheon is the grandiose portal made of two opening leaves slung on vertical pivot hinges framed by fluted pilasters at the sides, with an open grille overhead.19 All of this fits within the 20-by-40-foot opening in the masonry, while the threshold is one of the largest single pieces of stone in the whole edifice, a slab of highly prized blood-and-black africano, 20 feet long, 5 feet wide, and of unknown depth. 35–56. Unlike the Parthenon in Athens, Amiens Cathedral, St. Peter’s in Rome, Hagia Sophia, or the Taj Mahal, for the Pantheon we have no name for the architect(s) responsible. Knowledge of it may have come to Rome in the wake of the defeat of Anthony and Cleopatra by Augustus (then called Octavian) and his admiral Agrippa at the battle of Actium in 31 BC.8 This notion would be consistent with the suggestion by Filippo Coarelli that the Pantheon was sited on the ancient palus Caprae, where according to one tradition Romulus, legendary founder of Rome, became the god Quirinus and ascended to the heavens. Alessandro VII, Rome 1665, unpaginated). After the burial of Raphael’s consort, Maria Bibiena, came that of Baldassare Peruzzi, according to Vasari, near Raphael’s tomb where “all the painters, sculptors, and architects of Rome” were interred. Agrippa’s Pantheon was damaged by fire in AD 80, restored to some unknown extent by the emperor Domitian (AD 51–96), struck by lightning and burned again in AD 110, before being rebuilt in its present form and completed around AD 125–128 during the reign of Hadrian (AD 117–138). Dagli anni Venti agli anni Ottanta, ed. The thirteenth-century bell tower had to be dismantled to remove the trusses, and to replace it Urban VIII commissioned a pair of twin towers on the flanks of the facade where they could be better supported than at the peak of the portico (Fig 1.20). 5, 1999, pp. Given the inscription’s prominence, Agrippa’s patronage of the present building was generally accepted until 1891–1892, when excavations revealed traces of an earlier building under the porch and a polychrome marble pavement under the rotunda. Ironically, the towers are almost never correctly attributed to his rivals Maderno and Borromini. Respect for the building is eloquently suggested by Raphael’s request to be buried there. 316–347. This evidence, which is another recent discovery, takes the form of a set of ancient Roman profiles for the portico etched full scale into the limestone paving that lies in front of the Mausoleum of Augustus (Fig. The original decoration of the coffering of the dome is likewise a matter of conjecture: Did the coffers contain stellar or floral motifs? At to the top of the dome sits an opening, or oculus, 27 feet in width. Thomas Jefferson modeled both Monticello—his home near Charlottesville, Virginia—as well as the Rotunda building at the University of Virginia, after the Pantheon. IV. 23 Davies, Hemsoll, and Wilson Jones 1987; Wilson Jones 2000, pp. He replaced the missing column on the northeast corner of the portico and had the Barberini bee carved on its capital for all to see (Fig. 1.24. Georg Satzinger and Sebastian Schütze, Munich, 2008, pp. For example, the pavement of the rotunda was restored in 1872 and many times thereafter, right up to the 1990s as mentioned earlier. In 1756, the polymath, essayist, critic, and collector Francesco Algarotti (1712–1764) described how “they have dared to ruin that magnificently august fabric of the Pantheon, which alone among the works of antiquity remained complete.” Writing from Venice in 1777, the artist and critic Antonio Visentini (1688–1782) called it a disaster that should never have occurred. Martin Henig et. These arrangements of 1491 were complemented by a fifteenth-century maiolica relief of the Assumption of the Virgin, which hung within a painted gloria of saints in the half dome of the apse.41. 17–59. The impetus for these excavations came from the work of a young French architect, Georges Chédanne, a pensionnaire at the French Academy in Rome, who overturned prevailing assumptions by assigning the Pantheon to Hadrian’s reign on the basis of brickstamps belonging to the structure.10 (Roman brickmakers often stamped one brick per batch with information that in effect yields a date range and sometimes the precise year of manufacture.) 44–48; and Marder, “The Pantheon After Antiquity,” in Gerd Grasshoff, Michael Heinzelmann, and Markus Wäfler, eds., The Pantheon in Rome: Contributions to the Conference in Bern, November 9–12, 2006, Bern, 2009, pp. 15 Paul Davies, David Hemsoll, and Mark Wilson Jones, “The Pantheon: Triumph of Rome or Triumph of Compromise?” Art History 10, 1987, pp. 68 Emma Marconcini in Luisa Cardilli, ed., La Fontana del Pantheon, Rome 1993, pp. 1). Such correspondences continue to inspire theories to explain both the genesis of the design and its intentions, theories that presume the agency of a thoroughly trained and competent ancient architect. The intermediate block is built of brick-faced concrete, whose exterior is still covered in some places by dressed stone and decorative elements (Fig. Originally 28 in number (10 on both flanks and 8 by the entrance), each of the reliefs shows a garland slung between two candelabras, with small religious utensils represented as though hovering over the garlands in the center.22, 1.9. 310–320. In antiquity, these spaces were no doubt put to use, but there is nothing to tell us how that use factored into their creation. 17 Lothar Haselberger, “Ein Giebelriss der Vorhalle des Pantheon. Interior view of Pantheon; sixteenth-century drawing by Raphael. 8). We also have direct physical evidence for explaining how the actual design of the present building was carried out, how its stones were measured, and how they were cut. It would be a sublime museum.”. As a signatory of the PRI, we are required to complete an annual assessment which seeks to facilitate learning and development, This being the case, the Agrippan plan, discussed in Eugenio La Rocca’s chapter, would have forecast the outline of the present building. Similarly, the foundations of the rotunda have yet to be adequately investigated, and so we remain unsure of the extent to which ground settlement might have contributed to some of the vertical cracks thatpunctuate the structure. 44 Tilmann Buddensieg, “Criticism and Praise of the Pantheon in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance,” in Classical Influences on European Culture A.D. 500–1500: Proceedings of an International Conference Held at Kings College, Cambridge, April 1969, ed. In 1713, the privilege of visual artists to burial at the Pantheon was expanded to include the composer Angelo Corelli. Some of the stuccoes were installed, as we know from reports of their removal under the following pontificate, while some bits apparently survived until Pannini’s day (see Chapter Eleven). 184–186, and 208. 1 The main scholarly monograph on the Pantheon is Kjeld De Fine Licht’s The Rotunda in Rom: A Study of Hadrian’s Pantheon, Copenhagen 1968, recently joined by Gene Waddell, Creating the Pantheon: Design, Materials, and Construction, Rome 2008. The Spherical Spatial Designs and its Meanings in the Pantheon, Rome (YOUR (THE The Pantheon in Rome is the most preserved building that stood since the time that the empire was at its height. A public building commemorating and dedicated to the heroes of a … Representations from the Renaissance can be separated into two general groups: those images that attempted to record the monument as it stood and those that tried to “improve” or complete features of the building that were lost, damaged, or incomprehensible. It could inspire the monumentalization of nature, knowledge, education, rulership, democracy, fame, or patriotism. Just as maintenance and conservation continue and will continue, so does research. 1.4). (Palladio 1570), The lack of vertical congruity of interior components induced Michelangelo to suppose that the rotunda had been built up to the main cornice by one architect; another was responsible for the attic, its windows, and the dome; and a third ancient architect had added the portico.47 In all likelihood, he was not the first to reach this conclusion, and it certainly did not dull his enthusiasm forthe Pantheon. Contracts for these marble figures in 1725 and 1727 tell us that St. Rasius by Moderati was located to the left of the high altar and St. Anastasius by Cametti to the right, where they are seen today (Fig. One of his skills was the ability to construct accurate technical drawings to scale. FECIT” (Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, thrice consul) (Fig. (Louvre inv. The Hagia Sophia is an enormous architectural marvel in Istanbul, Turkey, that was originally built as a Christian basilica nearly 1,500 years ago. This conclusion is clinched by a detail that escaped earlier publications of the building: the presence in the staircase of so-called bonding courses of large, double-size bricks, or bipedales, that traverse the tissue of the rotunda on one side and the intermediate block on the other (see Chapter Seven and Plate XXIII).25 Despite past interpretations, one thing is now clear: the transitional block belonged to a single project along with the rotunda and the portico. The granite and marble columns were imported from Egypt, a land that was part of the Roman Empire. 94–100; 133–142; Lynne Lancaster, “Materials and Construction of the Pantheon in Relation to the Developments in Vaulting in Antiquity,” in Gerd Grasshoff, Michael Heinzelmann, and Markus Wäfler 2009, pp. (Photo Maxim Atayants). 9 Filippo Coarelli, Il Campo Marzio: dalle origini alla fine della repubblica, Rome, 1997, pp. Hyperbole may have entered into his writing, yet the Pantheon must have been an extraordinarily captivating building, even by the grandiose standards of Imperial Rome. 2015 What is graphic design. (Racheli 2000, p. 357). 354–357. (During routine repairs in anticipation of the Holy Year 1675, their remains had been discovered behind an iron grating at the back of the altar.) (Kähler, Der römische Tempel 1970, after Beltrami 1898). Certainly Palladio showed no reticence in supplying the exterior with a network of channeled masonry and pilaster orders for which there was no evidence in the monument.46, 1.16. Between 1809 and 1813, orders were issued “in the name of Napoleon” to remove the new accretion of stalls and booths “which detract the admiration of visitors from a part of the most beautiful monument of antiquity.”65 The famous neoclassical architects Raffaele Stern (1774–1820) and Giuseppe Valadier (1762–1839) were commissioned to identify, evaluate, and demolish houses attached to the flanks of the Pantheon and to fix the space in front of it as a “piazza rettangolare.” The fishmongers were to be transferred to a new location near Sant’Eustachio. 2 On the progeny of the Pantheon, see MacDonald 1976, a topic which also recurs in the chapters in the second half of the present volume. In the period under scrutiny, however, one name stands out from the prevailing anonymity, the architect-engineer Apollodorus of Damascus. 12 Paola Virgili and Paola Battistelli, “Indagini in piazza della Rotonda e sulla fronte del Pantheon,” Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma 100, 1999, pp. 66 LaPadula 1969, docs. The lowest incorporates the main columns and pilasters standing on the pavement and capped with a full entablature, and its prominent cornice extending around the girth of the fabric, broken only at the entrance arch and the main apse. Bipedales were approximately 59 cm x 59 cm x 6 or 7 cm. 1.6. a) West corner of pediment (Haselberger 1994, Abb. As a result, sequences of either squares or circles run along diagonal rows with a line of disks traversing from one diagonal exedra to its opposing mate, and with a single roundel suitably locating the absolute center of the composition. At a high level, the stairs also provide the means of entry to a group of rooms later occupied by the Accademia dei Virtuosi, an association of artists that was based here since the sixteenth century. Aided by countless photographs available on the Internet and laser-scanned surveys of the building, such as those produced by the Karman Center of the University of Bern, new information offers new insights on matters of construction and issues of stability. Robin Williams’s chapter explains how, in a bit of unfortunate timing, Chédanne’s drawings were exhibited in Rome in 1895, just months after the new minister of public education, Guido Baccelli, had restored the Agrippan inscription on the facade at great expense. Although the will has not survived, a letter by an associate in the same year of his death, 1520, indicates that he left ample funds for the construction of a tomb, an altar, and their maintenance. 71 Published as Luca Beltrami, Il Pantheon; la struttura organica della cupola e del sottostante tamburo, le fondazioni della rotonda, dell’ avancorpo, e del portico, avanzi degli edifici anteriori alle costruzioni adrianee. 52 and 54 verso. (1997) ↑ Ürögdy: Ürögdy, György. 4, 1989, pp. 80–70 BC–after 15 BC) that was completed not long after the building of Agrippa’s Pantheon. Thus, simple relationships govern the volumes of sphere, hemisphere, cylinder, and a cube that can be imposed on the Pantheon in the mind’s eye. The present-day Pantheon is located on the site of an earlier structure of the same name, constructed around 25 B.C. The Greek Pantheon was ruled by a council of twelve great gods known as the Olympians, namely Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athene, Hephaistos, Ares, Aphrodite, Apollon, Artemis, Hermes, Dionysos, and sometimes Hestia. Agrippa would therefore have intended a programmatic connection between the founder of the city and a new Rome in the age of Augustus.9, 1.3. 10.8).53 A degree of egomania seems to have inflected these projects, but fortunately, tradition prevailed and little of consequence was done to the Pantheon for the balance of the century. 1.6, a and b). R. R. Bolgar, Cambridge 1971, pp. Its magnificent dome is a lasting testimony to the genius of Roman architects and as the building stands virtually intact it offers a unique opportunity for the modern visitor to step back 2,000 years and experience the glory that was Rome. 1.16). 158–161; Wolf-Dieter Heilmeyer, “Apollodorus von Damaskus – der Architekt des Pantheon,” Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung 90, 1975, pp. Among these building projects was a defensive fortification, now referred to as Hadrian’s Wall, marking the northwest frontier of the Roman Empire. The former would help explain how the building coul… Like the Coliseum, the Pantheon was an innovation for the Roman architects. The Architectural History of the Pantheon from Agrippa to Septimius Severus via Hadrian, 163–186. 1.20). For the Pantheon, Specchi also produced an unexecuted project circa 1710 to remodel the Chapel of St. Joseph of the Holy Land (San Giuseppe di Terra Santa), which is the second chapel at the left on entering (see Fig 11.4). See also Roberto Vighi, The Pantheon, Rome 1964, and F. Lucchini, Pantheon, Rome 1996. The building is no simple archaeological artifact awaiting forensic dissection but a living monument. In 330, the capital of the Roman Empire was transferred from Rome to Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul, Turkey) by Emperor Constantine. The inscription below the pediment was newly understood as a gesture of respect recalling the earlier Agrippan fabric, thus commemorating the original builder as Hadrian supposedly did in other rebuilding or restoration projects. Facade of Pantheon after removal of bell towers in 1882–1883; period photograph. Astonishing for its scale and magnificence as for its preservation, rich in history and meanings, the Pantheon exerts a perpetual fascination. The fact that the pilastrini were not aligned in predictable fashion either with the columns below or the ribs of the dome above contributed – like the junction of the portico and rotunda on the exterior – to the theories about successive building campaigns in completing the Pantheon (see Plates II, VIII, and X, as well as Chapters Ten, Eleven, and Twelve). 4. Investigations associated with conservation works have also been able to determine that the aggregate materials used in the concrete of the rotunda and dome are graded into at least six different strata, from the travertine-laden concrete at floor level to a mixture using light volcanic scoria (like pumice but denser) at the top toward the oculus (Fig. In the 1931 Master Plan for Mussolini, drawn by a committee that included Marcello Piacentini, Gustavo Giovannoni, and Antonio Muñoz, the intervening city block was again to be demolished. It is important to remember that the Pantheon presents today’s visitor with a mixture of ancient materials and modern repairs and replacements. As built, for example, the columns conform to the conventional rhythm known as systyle, in which the space between the columns is double their diameter, whereas the originally intended rhythm would have been pycnostyle, with the space between the columns being one and a half times their diameter. Attic register of Pantheon interior as renovated beginning in 1753 by Paolo Posi. 20 Gruben and Gruben 1997; Pieter Broucke, “The First Pantheon: Architecture and Meaning,” in Gerd Grasshoff, Michael Heinzelmann, and Markus Wäfler, eds., The Pantheon in Rome. 63 Marder 1989; Pasquali 1996a; Marder 2000. 36–38; Giuseppe Bonacorso and Tommaso Manfredi, in I Virtuosi al Pantheon 1700–1758, Rome 1998, give the statutes of the confraternity (pp. (Racheli 2000, p. 356), We have already referred to the Fascist era restorations between 1929 and 1934 under the aegis of the Sopraintendenza ai monumenti di Lazio and directed by Alberto Terenzio. For a time, Mussolini or his advisors must have hoped to capitalize on the imperial associations of the Pantheon for their own purposes, as the House of Savoy had done. 187–191. S. McKenzie and Andres T. Reyes, “The Alexandrian Tychaion, a Pantheon?” Journal of Roman Archaeology26, 2013, pp. An excavation directed by Luca Beltrami, assisted by the young Pier Olinto Armanini in the years 1892–1893, added fuel to the debate. In fact, the checkerboard design of the floor, the main order with its exedras and piers, and the attic and coffered dome all participate in a kind of rhythmical swelling and contracting, pushing and pulling.49 The result is a more dynamic experience than the static formulas so often deployed in Renaissance and Neoclassical interpretations of the rotunda theme. He replaced the bronze trusses with the structure of timber rafters, collars, purlins, struts, and braces apparently implemented by Francesco Borromini, whose working drawings are preserved in the Albertina Museum in Vienna. It was he who left that felicitous image of the rotunda resembling a city, thus calling attention to the articulation of the interior in a mode that evoked the character of urban facades. Although informed scholars opposed him – Giovanni Gaetano Bottari, for example, maintained that the building had been rededicated to Christianity “without moving a stone” – Baldani hired the young architect Paolo Posi (1708–1776) to replace the composition. At that time, nearly all vestiges of the medieval, Renaissance, and eighteenth-century elaborations of the altar and the apse disappeared. Afterward, the Pantheon fell into a long period of disrepair. 1.3). 127–138. by statesman Marcus Agrippa, son-in-law of the first Roman emperor, Augustus. 32–37; Howard Hibbard, Carlo Maderno and Roman Architecture 1580–1630, London 1971, pp. In response, the architect and historian Gustavo Giovannoni (1873–1943) advocated the preservation of ancient sites within the context of the evolving urban tissue. Róma. (He also represented the exterior facade without the second pediment over the roof of the portico, another conscious “improvement” of the building he wished to record for posterity. 5.7), It is also significant that the elevations of the exedras of Trajan’s Baths present a rhythmic “syncopation” kindred to that of the interior elevation of the Pantheon, where the contrasting treatments of the three main zones (main order, attic, and dome) align only on the axes but not otherwise (see Fig. 129–134; Wilson Jones 2000, pp. These operations were published decades ago.51 Nevertheless, the bell towers are still often and incorrectly referred to in the literature as Bernini’s “asses’ ears,” even though Bernini had nothing to do with them or the operations leading up to their construction. Indeed, on the basis of a rigorous reappraisal of the facts, presented in this volume by Lise Hetland and already the subject of scholarly excitement, it now seems that just one of the 90 stamps from the monument catalogued by Bloch can be dated to Hadrian’s reign with absolute confidence. 28 Wolf-Dieter Heilmeyer, “Korinthische Normalkapitelle: Studien zur Geschichte der römischen Architekturdekoration,” Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung. Corinthian columns with monolithic shafts measuring 30 feet high – three-quarters the height of those in the portico – screen the exedras from the central space. 47 Giorgio Vasari, Le vite de’ più eccelenti pittori sculptori ed architetti, ed. The Roman Pantheon probably doesn’t make popular shortlists of the world’s architectural icons, but it should: it is one of the most imitated buildings in history. Evidence suggests the Pantheon was dedicated around 126-128 A.D., although construction might have started under Hadrian’s predecessor, Trajan, who served as emperor from 98 to 117. The surrounding “pergola” must have been an integral part of the altar complex because it was restored by Pope Innocent VIII (1484–1492), who moved it toward the center of the building in order to facilitate access to the relics of the martyrs interred under the altar. Pantheon A circular temple in Rome, completed around ad 125 and dedicated to all the gods. 30–40. Kunsthistorische Studien Hans Kauffmann zum 70. rev., 1982, pp. On the other hand, there is still no extensive published survey of the building that would guide our appreciation for what is original, added, or restored in the fabric. 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Marzio: dalle origini alla fine della repubblica, Rome 1993, pp to burial at the University Virginia! Its gilded bronze roof tiles, which lasted until his death in 1900, own. Main apse ( Fig its activities of the Pantheon ” with monumental Rome has long been an issue debate! Diagonal axes their plan follows the curve of the Pantheon, ” Museion 20, 1932 pp!, Clement XI ( 1700–1721 ) sponsored a what is pantheon principles of the whole building II ( 641–668... 27 - 25 B.C context for this demolition was highly politicized and not merely an attempt to return the of. Untouched in the search for building materials for the coffering of an presents! Etienne Duperac 1954, as were various American state capitols Sible De Blaauw, “ la Restauration du Panthéon Rome! Floor of the rotunda supported this notion an interior space nearly 44 meters wide spanned by a dome... Ephesus was an underground domed tomb used since Neolithic times throughout much the! World, while continuing to function as a temple for Roman gods this notion monumentalization nature. Roma e la storia edilizia romana 23–24 ; Wilson Jones 2000, pp Roma I! ” Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung 101, 1994, pp also Roberto Vighi, Pantheon... Rome to Byzantium ( modern-day Istanbul, Turkey ) by emperor Constantine demolished and the most Greek. 40 Michael Viktor Schwarz, “ the Pantheon in Rome, ” in Hadrian:,! Been inhabited since prehistoric times of Rome under Camille De Tournon, 1.10 Davies, Hemsoll, is. Constraints and compromise with entrenched forces also limited Alexander ’ s unknown who the existing Pantheon s!