Reading comprehension and working memory in learning-disabled readers: is the phonological loop more important than the executive system? Working memory, short-term memory, speech rate, word recognition and reading comprehension in learning disabled readers: does the executive system have a role? J. Exp. Free recall in boys of normal and poor reading levels as a function of task manipulations. As they are sounded out, words are then mapped onto their existing semantic representations and knowledge of the syntax and regularities of the language then help the extraction of meaning from text (Wagner and Torgesen, 1987; Cornwall, 1992; Wagner et al., 1994; Hogan et al., 2005). In order to verify participants’ native language proficiency and to confirm that the groups had distinct and separable language skills, we administered ASL and spoken English proficiency tests that probed both comprehension and production. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. In this paper, the relationship between phonological awareness and letter knowledge and their inherent structures in the period of early literacy are examined. Once … Repeat this process using the following words to assess the student’s ability to produce rhyming words: Three-sound words: ‘get’, ‘bet’ and ‘met’, Four-sound words: ‘jest’, ‘lest’ and ‘pest’. In young readers, strong phonological representations facilitate word identification skills, which support comprehension (Perfetti and Hart, 2001; Perfetti et al., 2005). Stud. Our study may explain some of the conflicting reports in the literature (Mayberry et al., 2011) since past studies have included populations that varied significantly in their language experience, all encompassed under the term “deaf.” Furthermore, our study confirms the need to avoid phonological tasks that confound orthographic and phonological knowledge (McQuarrie and Parrila, 2009). Three-sound words: ‘tub’ (t-ub) and ‘him’ (h-im), Four-sound words: ‘send’ (s-end) and ‘crab’ (cr-ab). Ask the student to listen to the words ‘pay’, ‘way’ and ‘ray’. After viewing each list, they were required to immediately recall in their preferred language as many words as possible in any order. While around 48% of deaf or hard-of-hearing children use “speech only” as their main mode of communication (Gallaudet Research Institute, 2005), linguistic knowledge within these individuals varies widely. Evidence suggests that this difference is attributable to language modality rather than sensory deprivation, per se, as hearing bilinguals have lower STM span in ASL as compared to when tested in English. For the separate group of hearing participants run to validate the tasks in Experiment 1, we confirm a significant effect of orthographic transparency in the Phoneme Judgment Task, the Phonemic Manipulation Task and when comparing the Phoneme Composite Scores (see Supplemental Information). Verbal Behav. The letters in the lists were the same as those used in Bavelier et al. J. Exp. Six attended a preschool for deaf children, but all attended mainstream schools during their elementary, middle, and high school years. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1972.tb02097.x, Cornwall, A. Speechreading and its association with reading among deaf, hearing and dyslexic individuals. All parts of the assessment are to be completed to provide a comprehensive overview of the student’s phonological knowledge. As the test progressed, the sentences increased in length, contained a greater number of clauses, and used less frequent vocabulary. A further candidate in this regard is orthographic knowledge (i.e., the knowledge about permissible letter patterns). This volume concerns the nature, status, and acquisition of phonological knowledge, and its place in, or relation to, the theory of language and other capacities of mind. Phonological coding in word reading: evidence from hearing and deaf readers. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.86.2.221, Sterne, A., and Goswami, U. Deaf Stud. Phonological representations in deaf children: rethinking the functional equivalence hypothesis. These two phoneme-type conditions were run blocked with the order of blocks counterbalanced across groups. (1994). Phonological Knowledge addresses central questions in the foundations of phonology and locates them within their larger linguistic and philosophical context. doi: 10.1007/BF02648162, Erber, N. P. (1974). (1998a). Early exposure to a natural language, be it spoken or signed, is associated with better knowledge of grammar and syntax (Mayberry, 1993), executive functioning (Figueras et al., 2008; Hauser et al., 2008a), and meta-linguistic awareness (Prinz and Strong, 1998); all of these in turn appear to foster better reading comprehension (Chamberlain and Mayberry, 2000; Padden and Ramsey, 2000; Goldin Meadow and Mayberry, 2001). Copyright © 2015 Hirshorn, Dye, Hauser, Supalla and Bavelier. Received: 27 February 2015; Accepted: 24 July 2015;Published: 25 August 2015. “Development of deaf and hard-of-hearing students’ executive function,” in Deaf Cognition, eds M. H. Marschark and P. C. Hauser (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 286–308. Deaf Educ. The deep (red) trails were designed such that orthography alone could not be used to accurately complete the task (e.g., the first sound of ‘Bird’ + the rime of ‘tOE’ = BOW). Remembering in Signs. Say to the student: Ask the student to repeat the sentence and identify the rhyming words. It also reveals for the first time a potential complementary route to literacy – semantic-based memory – that does not depend upon English phonological skills. Using the In this assessment students demonstrate their ability to manipulate sounds in words. Speech Hear. Levels of processing: a framework for memory research. Neuropsychol. Accordingly, top–down semantic influences on deaf readers, such as prior knowledge or context (Kelly, 1995; Jackson et al., 1997) have been shown to be significant predictors of passage comprehension, which is consistent with our current findings. Interestingly, the group × free recall primacy interaction was the only significant interaction term: F(1,35) = 11.59, p = 0.002 [Model 2: adjusted R2 = 0.48; F(9,35) = 5.51, p < 0.001]. Phonological remediation, or explicit phonological awareness training, often helps to improve reading skill in dyslexic readers, at least when measured at the word level (Eden et al., 2004; Shaywitz et al., 2004). doi: 10.1006/jecp.1998.2477, Swanson, H. L., and Ashbaker, M. H. (2000). Primacy in free recall, also thought to be a measure linked to semantic processing (Craik and Tulving, 1975; Bellezza et al., 1976; Waters and Waters, 1976), could be related to such cognitive skills that highlight the role of recognition and integration of memory representations over broader linguistic units. The goal of Experiment 1 was to determine the extent and type of English phonological knowledge in two groups of deaf readers. Brain 132, 1928–1940. J. Exp. Ask the student to practice this using a second set of flashcards showing a truck, a car, a train and tram. FIGURE 1. Present the student with four flashcards showing pictures of a cat, a pig, a mat and a hat. J. Mem. It was therefore important to ensure that participants knew the desired English names to be associated with the pictures we used. (2004). Among other advantages, this distinction draws attention to the difference between a knowledge of individual and There was a main effect of phoneme type, F(1,45) = 22.13, η2 = 0.33, p < 0.001, such that responses in the vowel condition were more accurate than those in the consonant condition. Deaf Educ. Yet, clearly oral deaf subjects differ from deaf native signers in their knowledge of English phonology. Phonological Knowledge: Conceptual and Empirical Issues (English Edition) eBook: Burton-Roberts, Noel, Carr, Philip, Docherty, Gerard: Amazon.de: Kindle-Shop Psychol., 25 August 2015 Ask the student to practice this by segmenting the words ‘baby’ and ‘packet’ into parts. Short-term memory in the Deaf: a test for speech coding. How grammar can cope with limited short-term memory: simultaneity and seriality in sign languages. In this task students demonstrate their ability to blend a sequence of sounds to make a word. There still remains outstanding questions about whether deaf readers, especially oral ones, have qualitatively similar English phonological knowledge to that of hearing individuals. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2007.10.012, Bayliss, D. M., Bogdanovs, J., and Jarrold, C. (2015). Repeat this process using the following words to assess the student’s ability to segment words into individual sounds. Chamberlain, C., and Mayberry, R. I. Importantly, serial recall and other verbal STM measures have been shown to contribute unique variance in explaining reading skill compared to phonological measures alone, at least in hearing readers (Gathercole et al., 1991; McDougall et al., 1994). The best predictor of reading comprehension differed as a function of language experience, with free recall being a better predictor in deaf native signers than in oral deaf. 7, 171–188. We first present an analysis of how reading predictors may differ across groups and then consider the impact of the different predictors within each group. Only sentences recalled verbatim were counted as correct. doi: 10.3758/BF03213198, Bellugi, U., Klima, E., and Siple, P. (1975). In order to prevent the use of word length as a strategy, words in each triad all contained the same number of letters and were either 5 or 6 letters long. 76, 683–696. Genetic and environmental influences on reading and listening comprehension. 8, 464. doi: 10.1093/deafed/eng028, MacSweeney, M., Brammer, M. J., Waters, D., and Goswami, U. Psychiatry 55, 926–933. A. doi: 10.1177/0956797610385355, Miller, P. (1997). J. Exp. Sinatra, R. C., Stahl-Gemake, J., and Berg, D. N. (1984). J. In other words, it refers to the learner understanding which letter (s) make which sounds. Ask the student to practice this using a second set of flashcards showing a boat, a lamp and a leaf. All participants were recruited from the Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT) or the National Technical Institute for the Deaf (NTID). J. In this task students demonstrate their ability to substitute one sound for another in words. Psychiatry 48, 139–146. doi: 10.1017/S0272263100006082, Lichtenstein, E. H. (1998). It will be for future research to assess precisely how greater reliance on semantic processing may foster good text comprehension, even in the face of poor phonological skills. Phonological Knowledge in Typical and Atypical Speech and Language Development: Nature, Assessment, and Treatment Introduction A child's first words do not sound like those spoken by adults. Lang. doi: 10.1080/09658410108667039, Keenan, J. M., Betjemann, R. S., Wadsworth, S. J., DeFries, J. C., and Olson, R. K. (2006). Several groups have found similarities between deaf and hearing participants in English phonological tasks. The assessment includes four interrelated parts: In this assessment students demonstrate their ability to recognise and express simple rhyming units. Knowledge of phonological coding system serves as the significant moderator. 10, 122–133. Acquis. Disabil. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01700.x, Coltheart, V., Laxon, V., Rickard, M., and Elton, C. (1988). (1989). Given our present focus on what is termed ‘phonological awareness’ in the reading literature, the term ‘phonological’ will refer to phonology of spoken English hereafter. In this assessment students demonstrate their ability to segment words. Individual differences in contextual facilitation: evidence from dyslexia and poor reading comprehension. Free recall memory (primacy effect) better predicted reading comprehension in deaf native signers as compared to oral deaf or hearing individuals. In this task students demonstrate their ability to delete a sound from a word. Chamberlain, C., and Mayberry, R. I. “The acquisition of reading comprehension skill,” in The Science of Reading: A Handbook, eds M. J. Snowling and C. Hulme (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd). Teach. Semantic processing and the development of word-recognition skills: evidence from children with reading comprehension difficulties. Henry, in Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences (Second Edition), 2014. Ask the student to repeat the names of the pictures and then ask them: Repeat this process using the following words to assess the student’s ability to recognise words that alliterate: Three-sound words: ‘bus’, ‘bat’, ‘bed’ and ‘web’, Four-sound words: ‘drum’, ‘desk’, ‘drip’ and ‘flag’. (1994). Phonological awareness is the foundation for learning to read. 14, 641–682. Child. doi: 10.1007/s11145-009-9180-z, LaSasso, C., Crain, K., and Leybaert, J. In this task students demonstrate their ability to segment words into individual sounds. (1993). In contrast, for the deaf native signers, in addition to free recall being a good predictor, the measure of phonological skills that best predicted reading was one that could be solved by visual information alone or by conceptual knowledge about spelling. J. Educ. Error bars represent the SE of the mean. Say to the student: Repeat this process using the following words to assess the student’s ability to delete a sound from a word. Speech-based phonological knowledge is one of the strongest predictors of reading comprehension in hearing individuals, yet its role in deaf readers is controversial. (2003). 36, 1258. doi: 10.1044/jshr.3606.1258, Mayberry, R. I., del Giudice, A. This condition therefore requires knowledge of idiosyncratic mappings in English: knowing that ‘c’ can sometimes sound the same as ‘s’ no longer provides a cue to the correct answer. Start studying Phonological Acquisition & Knowledge. doi: 10.1017/S014271640808017X, Colin, S., Magnan, A., Ecalle, J., and Leybaert, J. Speech Hear. (2006). Example stimuli for Phoneme Judgment Task. 4, 415–421. doi: 10.1080/026432997381402, Mayberry, R. I. Examples of this are toys or objects that a child relates too or has an emotional connection with. Words in the first consonant condition could be either one or two-syllables, while the words in the vowel condition were all one-syllable. Instead our tests require button-press responses and use nameable black and white pictures to provide a cleaner measure of phonological knowledge – there is no explicit phonological representation in the picture itself, unlike for written words. Ear Hear. 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